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Topics For Five Paragraph Essay
Monday, August 24, 2020
Saturday, August 22, 2020
Aneurysms Nursing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words
Aneurysms Nursing - Case Study Example Not all aneurysms are live undermining but rather when the vessel is over extended it might blast causing monstrous interior dying (ââ¬Å"Aneurysms and dissectionâ⬠, 2011).In typical circumstances, veins are equipped for withstanding ordinary circulatory strain because of their thick dividers. Dismemberment happens when a split happens in possibly at least one layers of the dividers of supply route. This parting causes seeping along and into layers of the course divider (ââ¬Å"What is aneurysmâ⬠, n.d). Frequency, mortality and grimness Aneurysms influence 1 in each 20 individuals in many social orders and are thusly a worldwide medical issue. It is approximated that around 30,000 individuals experience the ill effects of aneurysms in every year in USA (Khurana, and Spetzler, 2006) with stomach aortic causing around 9000 passings yearly. A large portion of stomach aneurysms happen in fifth, sixth and seventh many years of life (Debakey, Crawford, Garrett, Beall, and Howell , 1965 ; Mastracci and Eagleton, 2011) .The 9000 passings are comprehensive of 1400-2800 passings which happens because of elective activity with an end goal to forestall blasting (Lederle et al., 2002). Aneurysms crack causes approximated mortalities of 80-90% and the vast majority of the patients pass on before they are hospitalised.These passings are comprehensive of pre, intra and post employable cases (Russo, 2006).For aortic aneurysms, it has been evaluated that 13,000 Americans kick the bucket every year and a large portion of these passings happen because of analyzations or blasting of supply routes (ââ¬Å"What is aneurysmâ⬠, n.d).On the other hand, stomach aortic aneurysms (AAA) are the fourteenth driving executioner in USA (Russo, 2006). Hazard factors and reasons for aneurysms Any condition which prompts debilitating of supply routes dividers inclines an individual to aneurysm. Other hazard factors are smoking ,inherent variations from the norm of connective tissue, for example, Ehler Donlos disorder, inborn bicuspid valve irregularities (Montgomery, Henderson, Ostrowsky, Karimmi and Hennein, 2010), hypertension, atherosclerosis which is portrayed by working up of greasy torment in the courses, profound injuries, wounds, contaminations happening in veins, acquired sicknesses, for example, Malfan disorder (a wellbeing condition which influences bodyââ¬â¢s connective tissue) which makes individuals have truly adaptable joints and long bones (ââ¬Å"Aneurysms and dissectionsâ⬠, 2011).Pregnancy has additionally been connected with the arrangement and blasting of aneurysms of the splenic supply route which prompts the spleen (Reed et al, 1992). Aneurysms can likewise happen because of faulty qualities which assume a basic job in keeping up the trustworthiness of blood vessel divider which offers quality and versatility to courses. It has been believed that interruption of extracellar grid of blood vessel divider assumes a basic job in patho genesis of aneurysms, for example, intracranial aneurysms (Kuivaniemi,Troup and Prockop, 1991).For those patients with intracranial aneurysms it has been seen that they have diminished degree of blood vessel auxiliary proteins (Kuivaniemi et al, 1991). Individuals with flawed qualities have been appeared to have unusual aortic grid proteins, inadequate restraint of proteolysis or overactive proteolysis, absence of elastin and irregular creation of type 111collagen which is a basic segment of aorta divider (Reed et al, 1992). Patients who have autosomal predominant polystic kidney sickness (ADPKD) have likewise been appeared to have dangers of creating aneurysms. Likewise, infective endocarditis and Aspergillosis, syphilis contamination, injury and cocaine use has additionally been
Thursday, July 16, 2020
David Sedaris Inspired Me To Keep A Diary
David Sedaris Inspired Me To Keep A Diary Yesterday, the man across the aisle from me on my evening flight from Cleveland back to New York pointed at my crisp new copy of David Sedarisâ latest release, Theft By Finding. âIs that a good book?â He asked. I hesitated. âSort of.â âBecause I went to a reading he did a while ago and it just seemed like random stories.â At the time, I agreed with him that the book felt ârandom.â Some entries consisted of only a sentence, while others were meandering descriptions of conversations. Some entries were simple notations of offensive jokes Sedaris had heard from a coworker, or the money he spent that day. In other words, it felt like an actual diary, because it is: a bound compilation of Sedarisâ real diaries beginning in 1977. My fellow passenger had chatted to me about the book just as the flight attendant was closing the boarding door; by the time we landed at JFK, I had decided two things: first, that Theft By Findingâs ârandomnessâ was part, maybe even the majority, of its value; and second, that I was going to start keeping a diary again. NPR called Theft By Finding a âgreat junk store: chaotic, arbitrary, delightful,â and I agree with that assessment totally. Rather than meticulously recording the events of every day or filling the pages only when inspiration or tragedy struck, which seem to be two popular formats of diary books, Sedarisâs main criteria for what he wrote down seems to be âinteresting,â which covers everything from the spectacles put on by the regular customers at a Chicago IHOP to the shock and sadness of his motherâs death. Unlike his essays, which, by the nature of the genre, are structured as a narrative and tailored to elicit laughter, Sedarisâ diaries actually feel like life. Which is a weird thing to say, given that the book begins with Sedaris hitchhiking across the country working odd jobs and moves swiftly through art school in Chicago, the showbiz success of his sister Amy, to a series of misadventures in New York that coincide with the beginning of his success as a writer. But what I liked best about the book was that rather than coming away with the sense that Sedaris has had a more interesting life than most people, I merely felt that he had a better record of it. In other words, it felt so much like a real diary that I was inspired to start writing one of my ownâ"because even though Sedaris is undoubtedly one of the best humor writers of our generation, I think that if anyone took the time to write down every single interesting thing that happened to them, it would probably be worth reading. Iâve written before that Sedarisâ tendency toward exaggeration and truth-bending doesnât bother me, because I think that there are a million ways of telling the truth in memoir that have little to do with actual fact. In Theft By Finding, the believability factor is even more of an issue than his essays, and yet I find myself less concerned than ever with whether or not Sedaris is âlying to me as a reader. I think anyone Sedarisâ age, in his generation, probably has a million weird stories to tell (I have about ten thousand, and Iâm 22), and given his talent for wry observation and a career defined by capturing the truly strange things that occur in his life, he could easily fill a book with nothing but âtruths.â But thatâs not what a diary is. A diary is an artifact of varying states of mind, the product of narcissism, nostalgia, and perceptions altered if not by drugs than at least by hormones. Diaries are by nature âchaotic and arbitrary.â What feels the most authentic in Theft By Finding is Sedarisâ attitudes towards himself, his surroundings, and his purpose in the worldâ"as well as the fact that these attitudes are constantly fluctuating. I still donât know if Iâd call Theft By Finding a âgood book.â I donât know if itâs meant to be that. What I do know for certain is that when Iâm older, Iâm going to want to remember how funny, exciting, depressing or downright bizarre my life is right this second. I definitely owe Sedaris for that reminder. Sign up for True Story to receive nonfiction news, new releases, and must-read forthcoming titles. Thank you for signing up! Keep an eye on your inbox.
Thursday, May 21, 2020
Complex Hunters and Gatherers
The term complex hunter-gatherers (CHG) is a fairly new term that attempts to correct some ill-conceived notions of how people in the past organized their lives. Anthropologists traditionally defined hunter-gatherers as human populations that lived (and live) in small groups and that are highly mobile, following and subsisting on the seasonal cycle of plants and animals. Key Takeaways: Complex Hunter-Gatherers (CHG) Like general hunter-gathers, complex hunter-gatherers do not practice agriculture or pastoralism.They can achieve the same levels of social complexity including technology, settlement practices, and social hierarchy as agricultural groups.As a result, some archaeologists believe agriculture should be seen as less a significant characteristic of complexity than others. In the 1970s, however, anthropologists and archaeologists realized that many groups who subsisted on hunting and gathering around the world did not fit the rigid stereotype into which they were put. For these societies, recognized in many parts of the world, anthropologists use the term ââ¬Å"Complex Hunter-Gatherers.â⬠In North America, the most well-known example is the prehistoric Northwest Coast groups on the North American continent. Why Complex? Complex hunter-gatherers, also known as affluent foragers, have a subsistence, economic and social organization far more ââ¬Å"complexâ⬠and interdependent than generalized hunter-gatherers. The two types are similar: they base their economies without relying on domesticated plants and animals. Here are some of the differences: Mobility: Complex hunter-gatherers live in the same place for most of the year, or even for longer periods, in contrast to generalized hunter-gatherers who stay in one place for shorter periods and move around a lot.Economy: Complex hunter-gatherers subsistence involves a large amount of food storage, whereas simple hunter-gatherers usually consume their food as soon as they harvest it. For example, among Northwest Coast populations, storage involved both meat and fish desiccation as well as creating social bonds that allowed them to have access to resources from other environments.Households: Complex hunter-gatherers donââ¬â¢t live in small and mobile camps, but in long-term, organized households and villages. These are also clearly visible archaeologically. On the Northwest Coast, households were shared by 30 to 100 people.Resources: Complex hunter-gatherers do not harvest only what is available around them, they focus on gathering specific and very productive food products and combining them with other, secondary resources. For example, in the Northwest Coast subsistence was based on salmon, but also other fish and mollusks and in smaller amounts on the forest products. Furthermore, salmon processing through desiccation involved the work of many people at the same time.Technology: Both generalized and complex hunter-gatherers tend to have sophisticated tools. Complex hunter-gatherers donââ¬â¢t need to have light and portable objects, therefore they can invest more energy in larger and specialized tools to fish, hunt, harvest. Northwest Coast populations, for example, constructed large boats and canoes, nets, spears and harpoons, carving tools and desiccation devices.Population: In North America, complex hunter-gatherers had larger populations than small size agricultural villages. Northwest Coast had among the highest population rate of North America. Villages size spanned between 100 and more than 2000 people.Social hierarchy: complex hunter-gatherers had social hierarchiesà and even inherited leadership roles. These positions included prestige, social status, and sometimes power. Northwest Coast populations had two social classes: slaves and free people. Free people were divided into chiefs and elite, a lower noble group, and commoners, who were free people with no titles and therefore with no access to leadership positions. Slaves were mostly war captives. Gender was also an important social category. Noble women had often high-rank status. Finally, social status was expressed through material and immaterial elements, such as luxury goods, jewels, rich textiles, but also feasts and ceremonies. Distinguishing Complexity The term complexity is a culturally weighted one: There are about a dozen characteristics that anthropologists and archaeologists use to measure or approximate the level of sophistication achieved by a given society in the past or the present. The more research people have undertaken, and the more enlightened they become, the fuzzier the categories grow, and the whole idea of measuring complexity has become challenging. One argument made by American archaeologist Jeanne Arnold and colleagues has been that one of those long-defined characteristicsââ¬âthe domestication of plants and animalsââ¬âshould no longer be the defining complexity, that complex hunter-gatherers can develop many more important indicators of complexity without agriculture. Instead, Arnold and her colleagues propose seven platforms of social dynamics to identify complexity: Agency and authoritySocial differentiationParticipation in communal eventsOrganization of productionLabor obligationsArticulation of ecology and subsistenceTerritoriality and ownership Selected Sources Ames, Kenneth M. The Northwest Coast: Complex Hunter-Gatherers, Ecology, and Social Evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 23.1 (1994): 209ââ¬â29. Print.Ames Kenneth M. and Herbert D.G. Maschner. Peoples of the Northwest Coast. Their Archaeology and Prehistory. London: Thames and Hudson, 1999.Arnold, Jeanne E. Credit Where Credit Is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe. American Antiquity 72.2 (2007): 196-209. Print.Arnold, Jeanne E., et al. Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23.2 (2016): 448ââ¬â99. Print.Buonasera, Tammy Y. More Than Acorns and Small Seeds: A Diachronic Analysis of Mortuary Associated Ground Stone from the South San Francisco Bay Area. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32.2 (2013): 190ââ¬â211. Print.Killion, Thomas W. Nonagricultural Cultivation and Social Complexity. Current Anthropology 54.5 (2013): 596ââ¬â606. Print.Maher, Lisa A., Tobias Richter, and Jay T. Stock. The Pre-Natufian Epipaleolithic: Long-Term Behavioral Trends in the Levant. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 21.2 (2012): 69ââ¬â81. Print.Sassaman, Kenneth E. Complex Hunter-Gatherers in Evolution and History: A North American Perspective. Journal of Archaeological Research 12.3 (2004): 227ââ¬â80. Print.
Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Pestle Analysis - 2113 Words
Report: The environmental factors within the PESTLE analysis which are having an impact on Charles Stanley October 2008 1.0 - Introduction to the PESTLE analysisâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦.........................3 2.0 ââ¬â Introduction - Charles Stanley 2.1 - Pestle Analysis of Charles Stanley Stockbrokers 3.0 ââ¬â Detailed Focus - Two Key Factors 3.1 ââ¬â Impact factors on HR strategy and practise 3.2 ââ¬â Recommendations 3.3 ââ¬â Conclusions 4.0 ââ¬â Conclusion Appendix References Bibliography Concept Completing a PESTLE analysis in order to see the ââ¬Ëbigger pictureââ¬â¢, can be a simple or a rather complex task, depending on how much detail is gathered and also how many people are involved as people see things differently. The six elements form detailedâ⬠¦show more contentâ⬠¦The growing concern around obesity and lack of physical activity has pushed Charles Stanley to offer health club membership. Also the attitudes to work and leisure bring focus to the work hard, play hard culture and for leisure. Charles Stanley have a Ride to Work scheme in place. Having such schemes in place may incur additional costs but there are long term benefits which include higher productivity, raised morale, motivation, engagement and achieving strategic objectives. The work life balance is also an important issue as many find that work demands get in the way of other commitments so ââ¬Ëbeing aware of different demands on time and energyââ¬â¢ has become increasingly difficult to manage within the HR function at Charles Stanley. (David Clutterbuck) It has become increasingly important to have family friendly policies and flexible work patterns to help employees with other commitments such as community commitments or studying. Family friendly benefits like childcare vouchers are also offered at Charles Stanley but not taken up by many because they are not publi cised enough. Other challenges recently raised within the HR dept is the lack of female labour in financial services and the ageing workforce which increases pensions costs. Technological As UK Internet usage becomes more widespread, this has encouraged Charles Stanley to support the introduction of a new Human Resources Information System (HRIS) and anShow MoreRelatedThe Pestle Analysis Of Pestle Analysis2371 Words à |à 10 PagesP.E.S.T.L.E Analysis The PESTLE analysis is used to analyse the current and future predicaments of an industry that the organisation or business belongs to, thus helping to provide better strategic planning whilst gaining competitive superiority over competition. Significance of the factors that are included in the PESTLE analysis can vary depending on the market, organisation or business. 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Conclusion 5. References 1. Introduction Centre Parcs are one of the UKs leading family, self-catering holiday destinations. This report aims to analyse the company using one of the key tools available to guide strategic decision making ââ¬â A PESTLE AnalysisRead MoreBusiness Benefits : Swot Analysis And Pestle Analysis1275 Words à |à 6 Pages1. Valentinos, Mission Statement, Three Business Benefits, SWOT Analysis and PESTLE Analysis. - Mission Statement To guide persons to the right path in their relations with a high level of privacy and confidentiality. - Three Business Benefits - SWOT Analysis Strengths: 1. The long established brand name and the stability performance as a result of the experience gained during the years of work. 2. The use of high technology and experienced staff who are ready to meet the members needs. 3Read MoreVietnam : Macro Enviroment : Pestle Analysis2808 Words à |à 12 PagesVIETNAM - MACRO-ENVIROMENT: PESTLE ANALYSISâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦...4 CANDYKING LTD. COMPANY â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦.â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦..â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦.5 CURRENT STRATEGYâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦.....5 STRUCTUREâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦..â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦5-6 PRODUCT CATEGORIES â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦..â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦........6 TASK # 2â⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦.7 BLUE OCEAN RED OCEANâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦..7 DIFFRENCE BETWEEN BLUE OCEAN RED OCEANâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦Ã¢â¬ ¦...8 CANDYKING LTD. COMPANY ANALYSIS FROM RED OCEAN PROSPECTIVE
Bismark Attack Paper Free Essays
Bismarck exemplifies the best in effective leadership. While his methods may have been temporarily distasteful, his successful ends for Germany more than justified his means to achieve them. (ATTACK) Otto Von Bismarck spent 10 years working for at united Germany in an attempt to shift the balance of power in Europe. We will write a custom essay sample on Bismark Attack Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now He was once quoted as saying ââ¬Å"People don t make nations, strong leaders and wars doâ⬠, and he was more than willing to sacrifice his fellow Germans for his vision of a powerful Germany. Even with the great idea to bring Germany together, I believe it was the farthest example of the best in effective leadership. In fact based on the video and research I believe Bismarck used blackmail and temper tantrums to get his way which is not the mark Of a great and powerful leader. When the King of Prussia asked Bismarck to be his Prime Minister, he wanted Bismarck to unite all Germans under one power, and one crown. He had a parliament that wouldnââ¬â¢t pay their military and needed a way to get all Germans from the Saxons, Bavarian and Hessians to unite and become a stronger county. Bismarck believed he was being led by God to bring all of Germany together. This to me sounds very Hitler-issue and very much like someone who is going to step on everyone in his path to get what he wants. He attacked Denmark and then Austria, even though the King of Prussia was against it. While see where his thought process was, and why he attacked to unite his country, the King was very hesitant to have ââ¬Å"Germans shooting at Germansâ⬠. After the wars, Bismarck had what he wanted as far as national pride and Germans having a sense of country and dedication to the father land. This is where his effectiveness as a leader ends. The Prime Minister then decided to provoke France into a war. He wanted to make sure no one would try and intervene in German affairs and bring some of the smaller German states out of the nation as a whole. He then adds insult to injury by suggesting a German prince become the new ruler of Spain, which France vehemently denied. Bismarck had become so power angry and now longer concerned with German affairs that he was blinded to what was going on. There was no need to provoke the French into a war for pointless gains. Bismarck had no need for the French territory but was more concerned with himself and his legacy than his people. Being out only for himself and provoking other countries needlessly is by no means an effective leader much less a great one. How to cite Bismark Attack Paper, Papers
Saturday, April 25, 2020
Printing Press History Essays - Textual Scholarship, Typography
Printing Press History In the early 1450's rapid cultural change in Europe fueled a growing need for the rapid and cheap production of written documents. Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and businessman from the mining town of Mainz in southern Germany, borrowed money to develop a technology that could address this serious economic bottleneck. Gutenberg foresaw enormous profit-making potential for a printing press that used movable metal type. Gutenberg developed his press by combining features of existing technologies: textile, papermaking and wine presses. Perhaps his most significant innovation, however, was the efficient molding and casting of movable metal type. Each letter was carved into the end of a steel punch which was then hammered into a copper blank. The copper impression was inserted into a mold and a molten alloy made of lead, antimony and bismuth was poured in. The alloy cooled quickly and the resulting reverse image of the letter attached to a lead base could be handled in minutes. In 1476, William Caxton set up England's first printing press. Caxton had been a prolific translator and found the printing press to be a marvelous way to amplify his mission of promoting popular literature. Caxton printed and distributed a variety of widely appealing narrative titles including the first popular edition of Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. Caxton was an enthusiastic editor and he determined the diction, spelling and usage for all the books he printed. He realized that English suffered from so much regional variation that many people couldn't communicate with others from their own country. Caxton's contributions as an editor and printer won him a good portion of the credit for standardizing the English language. The printing press encouraged the pursuit of personal privacy. Less expensive and more portable books lent themselves to solitary and silent reading. This orientation to privacy was part of an emphasis on individual rights and freedoms that print helped to develop. Print facilitated a focus on fixed, verifiable truth, and on the human ability and right to choose one's own intellectual path. In the early 1800's the development of continuous rolls of paper, a steam-powered press and a way to use iron instead of wood for building presses all added to the efficiency of printing. A number of dramatic technological innovations have since added a great deal of character and dimension to the place of print in culture. Linotype was introduced in 1884 and marked a significant leap in production speed. The typewriter made the production and "look" of standardized print much more widely accessible. The process of setting type continued to go through radical transformations with the development of photo-mechanical composition, cathode ray tubes and laser technologies. The Xerox machine made a means of disseminating print documents available to everyone. Word processing transformed editing and contributed dramatic new flexibility to the writing process. Computer printing has already moved through several stages of innovation, from the first daisy-wheel and dot matrix "impact" printers to common use of the non-impact printers: ink-jet, laser and thermal-transfer. Both the Internet and interactive multimedia are providing ways of employing the printed word that add new possibilities to print's role in culture. The printed word is now used for real-time social interaction and for individualized navigation through interactive documents. It is difficult to gauge the social and cultural impact of new media without historical distance, but these innovations will most likely prove to signal another major transformation in the use, influence and character of human communication.
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